Roy “Robin” Lewis about Coastal Restoration

Roy R. “Robin” Lewis III has been studying or restoring coastal habitats for nearly half a century. A wetlands ecologist and president of Lewis Environmental Services, Inc., he specializes in the ecology, management, restoration and creation of fresh and saltwater marshes, mangrove forests, forested freshwater forests, and seagrass meadows. Robin has applied his expertise to hundreds of projects throughout the world, and to more than 100 papers on the subject of wetland restoration. He is the president of Coastal Resource Group, Inc., a non-profit educational and scientific organization and the force behind the resource-filled web sites www.mangroverestoration.com and www.seagrassrestorationnow.com. Robin is so passionate about the need to pass the torch to the next generation of coastal wetland restoration professionals, he has voluntarily taught courses on the subject for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Ohio State University, University of Wisconsin and Louisiana State University. He has also taught wetland restoration in twenty-two foreign countries including Guyana, Jamaica, Bonaire, Nigeria, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam. He has served on the boards of the Society of Wetland Scientists, Association of State Wetland Managers, Mangrove Action Project, WildLaw, Inc., and the Putnam County Environmental Council. Last year, he was appointed to the IUCN’s Species Survival Commission Mangrove Specialist Group.

Are some coastal habitats easier to restore than others? Why?

In a 2011 paper that was published in the National Wetlands Newsletter, I created a hierarchy showing the likelihood of successful restoration. At the top are estuarine marshes and mangroves. At the bottom is submerged aquatic vegetation. From my experience, I have seen that the chances of success with seagrass restoration are very low.

With coastal wetlands, the key driving force for success is whether you can get the hydrology right at your restored sight. Hydrology in coastal systems is generally predictable.  When I teach the subject, I tell my students that on my computer I have a program that gives me the tides for several hundred locations around the world—going back and forward 100 years.  With a little bit of survey work and homework, you can be pretty predictive about the normal baseline hydrology of a site. It’s a relatively predictable process. But most people don’t get it right.

When you move into freshwater systems, hydrology is not predictable. Droughts, rainfall, unpredictable groundwater discharge…all of those things make it difficult to get the hydrology correct.  Once you move into submerged aquatic vegetation, you are dealing with a combination of hydrology and water quality. In certain parts of the world, you are also dealing with overlapping physical impacts–from boats or commercial or recreational fishing, for example. Unless you can ameliorate those physical and biological impacts, you are going to have problems with restoration.

 

In a paper you published in Wetland Science and Practice in 2010, you wrote that “mangrove forest restoration should be routinely successful if a few basic ecological principles are applied at the early planning stages,” yet you also write that evidence of successful mangrove restoration on any large scale is “nearly nonexistent.” What are those ecological principles and why do people fail to apply them?

With most of the projects, I am familiar with–and these include hundreds of projects overseas as well as here in the U.S.—it was initially assumed that all you needed to do was plant mangroves. Over many decades, we have seen tens of millions of dollars being put into nurseries to grow mangroves. The mangroves are then planted in places where they never occurred, a picture is taken with a child planting mangrove and put on the cover of a success report, and that’s it. That’s the last monitoring that takes place. Now, we commonly see very specific, documented failures.  My paper documents an attempt to restore over 100,000 acres of mangroves in the Philippines which largely failed.

Often times, people don’t do their homework. A lot of mangrove restoration programs are run by foresters. Foresters are tree people; they plant trees. When you ask a forester who has never dealt with mangroves before about restoration, they say, “It’s very simple. We just grow them in the nursery, find someplace that doesn’t have mangroves, and plant them there. That’s what we do with other species, so it’ll certainly work with mangroves.” As long as this happens, we are going to see many more horror stories over the decades.  Unbelievably large amounts of money are spent on projects that don’t have a chance.

Failed mangrove planting, Gorontalo, Indonesia

 

In 1997, we developed a simple, six-step process for ecological mangrove restoration [illustrated resource]. That methodology has been adopted in a number of places I have taught, including Thailand and Indonesia. The first step is to know the ecology of the species of plants you want to restore. Any restoration project of any type for any community, including corals, should go back to this question: How does this particular ecological community naturally restore damage? All ecological communities on the planet have been impacted by something…hurricane, tsunami, volcano, flood. Without man’s intervention, they have restored themselves. You need to look at the natural, restorative, successional process as a guideline.

If you’ve had a course in ecology, you know that there is primary succession and secondary succession. Primary succession is when the plants or corals come into a totally barren submerged area or volcanic island, for example. Secondary succession is what we more commonly see with coastal vegetation. Primary succession may have been buried by dredge material or eliminated in some way. But there are probably plant propagules around, and with mangroves, those are heavy, floating seeds.  Depending upon the location, there are typically grasses or other herbaceous, low-growing species that colonize these sites early.  There hasn’t been a lot of research into how the early colonizers modify the soil, but apparently they improve the conditions—perhaps by oxygenating anaerobic soil–for mangroves. That’s all without human beings doing much of anything. But if you want to speed up the process, perhaps you should use the early colonizing, or “nurse” species, such as smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) [in your mangrove restoration projects.].

In the Gulf and, to some extent, Atlantic coasts, where mangroves occur, we often see Spartinavolunteer, and then a few years later, mangrove propagules volunteer inside clumps of Spartina. It’s preferential. Five feet away, if there’s no Spartina, there are no mangroves. Several other scientists have documented this natural process. Spartina, which is also particularly good for controlling erosion, might be used initially to stabilize an eroding shoreline. Then, working ecologically, the cordgrass and mangroves can stabilize pretty heavily eroding shorelines with a little help from humans.

The concept of “living shorelines” is an idea that came out of people watching natural plant communities colonize shorelines and saying, “Maybe we can use this instead of a seawall.” It’s a great concept, but it has been abused, as we don’t have formal training processes. Practitioners must be able to differentiate between an ecologically-based living shoreline and an excuse to put a rock on a shoreline.

Overseas, in Southeast Asia, they have native grass species that colonize, and until recently, they’d mow them down and plant mangroves because they didn’t understand that part of the natural process. They were actually spending money fighting secondary succession. But very gradually, we are seeing practitioners–even overseas–adopting this concept.

 

There have been numerous reports on the shortcomings of wetland restoration. A fairly recent example is a 2012 study by David Moreno-Mateos, a University of California postdoctoral fellow who found that, on average, restored wetlands are 25 percent less productive than natural wetlands.  Last year, in an attempt to pinpoint the underlying causes of those shortcomings and identify actions to address them, the Association of State Wetland Managers created a Wetland Restoration Working Group. The group developed a series of  free webinars on “Improving Wetland Restoration Success,” featuring experts from around the U.S.  You and Joy Zedler, both members of the working group, are among the authors of a white paper based on these webinars entitled “Wetland Restoration” Contemporary Issues & Lessons Learned.”  The paper is chock full of useful information for people involved in restoring coastal wetlands. Where can our readers find this paper when it’s ready?

The white paper should be finalized this fall, but a draft is available online now.

 

Many of our readers are involved in the planning and design phase of wetland restoration in coastal environments. The paper includes several recommendations related to these phases, but if you only had 30 seconds to share advice with a designer, what would you say?

Find a professional wetland scientist who does the kind of work you’re trying to do. We have 1500 or so certified wetland scientists in the U.S. Many are restoration experts. If you were going to build a bridge, you’d find a bridge engineer.  If you’re going to try to restore a wetland, you need a wetland restoration professional with a track record and credentials.

 

As you point out in the white paper, in the case of compensatory wetland restoration, we are actually contributing to the degradation of coastal wetlands.

If you assume that the basic thing we want out of any mitigation project is at least one-to-one replacement (impact an acre, restore an acre), there is good evidence that we are not even getting close to that. A few of the papers that have been written on this—including the 2001 National Academy of Sciences book–suggest that we get even less than half. I wouldn’t be surprised if it has gotten worse. People like me, who have decades of experience, are not getting any younger, and professionals in the regulatory environment who have experience are retiring. Yet there is no formal program for passing the torch.

 

The changing climate is included in the white paper as one of the key barriers to meeting wetland restoration performance criteria. Obviously, climate change is a huge factor in coastal habitat restoration. What recommendations does the working group have on this?

The bottom line is that we must apply what we’ve learned about the natural system and its processes and apply it to any coastal restoration or coastal management project.

Coastal management is where we must place emphasis on climate change and sea-level rise impacts. If you wait too long, a coastal wetland of any type can become so degraded it will not be able to respond naturally to sea-level rise.  Only healthy mangroves, marshes, and seagrasses can keep up with sea-level rise—to a point. There is scientific evidence that [these coastal habitats], when healthy, can keep up with sea level rises that are ten times what we have in most places.  (see papers # 501, 502 and 503 at “downloads” at www.mangroverestoration.com)

Initial hydrologic restoration, abandoned shrimp aquaculture pond, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

 

The catch here is…how do we respond? Can we respond to coastal plant communities as they become stressed? Can we intervene sooner and at least give them the opportunity to naturally keep up with sea-level rise? That may sound simplistic, but it is not currently the emphasis. In the U.S., money is being distributed to address sea-level rise, or “resiliency,” and a lot of it is going to projects to address severely impacted wetland plant communities. If done properly, that may have a role, but attempting restoration where plant communities have been destroyed is a tough engineering and ecological restoration issue.

My research shows that stressed mangroves can be detected. We should think about reversing the trend before the community is lost. Mangroves and marshes create their own substrate. They either trap inorganic sediments or they create organic sediments from root growth. They create peat. In many places, such as Louisiana, there are large areas of predominantly organic peat soils that have been shown to collapse once the plants became stressed. In some cases, you’re looking at decades or hundreds of years of peat accumulation.  There are even forested mangroves that are 8,000 years old. If you allow that plant community to die, and allow those organic soils to oxidize, now what do you do about restoration? You can’t reverse centuries or millennia of soil accumulation overnight. If you have a loss of soils combined with sea-level rise, that is not a logical approach.

 

So based on your four decades of experience restoring coastal habitats, you’d say it’s critical when selecting the restoration site to know that tipping point at which you will not have a return on investment (and I don’t just mean financial)?

It’s simply bang for your buck. If you’re going to invest funds in protecting coastlines, where is the best investment? I suggest that we are not looking at that. Many people don’t look at the real cost of coastal restoration. Recent numbers from the Corps of Engineers in New York and New Jersey show that they are spending half a million dollars an acre for marsh restoration. We can’t afford that.

Google “cost of mangrove restoration” and see what you get.  You’ll get a couple of my papers, but not much more. Turns out, it can be quite expensive, but it’s less expensive if you do your homework and try to intervene where there are stress-related issues [as opposed to a restoration of a lost plant community]. Once you get into heavy engineering, the costs increase.

Same view, seven years after work complete. Mostly volunteer mangroves

 

Do we know enough to be able to practice this type of early detection?  You mentioned your paper, but has there been enough research into stress of coastal ecosystems?

No. Agencies are spending millions of dollars on “coastal resiliency” but they are not looking for projects of this nature.  There is not enough money and not enough research. We are, however, developing a process now with mangroves. We have some sites, and it’s all unfunded, ad hoc research, but we should have enough information to do this with stressed mangroves within a year or two.  It makes sense: anticipate and measure stress, intervene early, and reverse the stress.

Of course, in parallel, if governments want to do restoration projects, I’m not suggesting they don’t. But it should work, and there should be documentation that it works. Built into every project there should be some kind of quantitative measures and reporting.  When it gets to reporting about what worked and what didn’t work, it all falls apart because in most cases, there is not enough funding to go all the way to a publication. We are not learning from our mistakes. We use the term adaptive management all the time. But what does it really mean in the real world of wetland restoration? In a thumbnail, it’s “learn from your mistakes, publicizing that, and adapt your processes so you don’t make the same mistake twice.” I’d say that is not happening in coastal wetland restoration.

 

You have consulted, researched, or worked on coastal habitat restoration projects in other parts of the world. Is anyone doing a better job than the U.S. with regard to adaptive management in coastal habitat restoration?

Great Britain is doing some heavy-duty planning related to planned retreat. They are actually looking at their coastline, breaching dikes that may be a thousand years old, and allowing tides to return. In the U.S., the planned retreat is an anathema.

 

In working in nations like Vietnam, Cuba, Thailand, and Nigeria, which differ ecologically, culturally, politically, did you find any common threads in terms of factors that improve the effectiveness of coastal habitat restoration?

Expertise and training. Bringing the expertise of a professional, but then setting up training (ideally train-the-trainer programs) for the local community. You have to think about the next generation of restorers.

 

Among the skills and knowledge, you aim to transfer in those situations, which are most important to long-term continuity of restoration initiatives?

Understanding autecology: the ecology of a single species. You must understand the biology and ecology of your target plant species, and you have to get down to the botanical level.  I have done work in the Philippines where I asked, “What plant community are we going to restore here?” and they said, “We don’t know. We just want to restore mangroves.” Well, there are 26 species in the Philippines, and each has an association with another 10-20 species of marsh plants. What are their hydrological requirements? Where do they exist along the coastline?

You must also know the local coastal ecology before you start thinking about restoration. That includes uplands, margins between uplands and mangroves, beaches, etc.  The role of the restoration ecologist, which is huge, is too often left out.

 

Have you ever found that incoming into a country as the coastal wetland restoration expert, you learned something from locals with traditional ecosystem knowledge?

That happens every place I go to. 22 countries; 22 major lessons in mangrove and marsh ecology.  I’ll give you an example. One of the species of mangroves that occurs in the Philippines and the surrounding area, Rhizophora mucronata, has a seed that can be up to one meter in length. If you really want to, you can collect these enormous seeds and plant them in some very bizarre places, and they will grow. People have planted them and have been able to get mangroves to establish in some areas I would’ve suggested they couldn’t. However, they planted them in seagrass beds because, in that part of the world, they’ve never appreciated seagrasses. So I have learned that you can convert a perfectly healthy seagrass bed into a Rhizophoamucronata mangrove forest. But is that a good thing?

 

I’d like to revisit your responses to two questions you were asked in a 1998, NOAA publication on Restoring Coastal Habitats. The first question was: How effective is habitat restoration in addressing human impacts on the coastal environment? In your 1998 response, you said that “Coastal habitat restoration, properly designed and constructed, is very effective in reestablishing certain habitat types like tidal marshes and mangrove forests” but that “many coastal habitat restoration projects of all types either are only marginally successful or completely fail to accomplish project goals. Often these failures are due to inexperienced individuals attempting to design and build projects without adequate training.” Has your answer changed since then?

My answer is pretty much the same. It can be effective if done properly, and it has been done. There are some very large, successful projects in the U.S. But those projects are not being replicated, and we’re not learning much. By and large, we do not get the most bang for the bucks we invest in coastal habitat restoration.

 

The second question was: What developments are most necessary before coastal habitat restoration can adequately address the range of human impacts on the coast? In your 1998 response, you said, “Routine mistakes in coastal habitat restoration design and construction are repeated because knowledge gathered by experienced professional restoration ecologists is often overridden by engineering considerations.” How would you respond to that question today?

In my response, I also said that modern coastal restoration technology “is not formally taught at any university or college, but is transmitted to a new generation of restoration ecologists largely by those brave scientists willing to admit that they do not have all the answers, and who often made mistakes before they learned by doing.” This small cadre of experienced restorationists is attempting to institutionalize the teaching of restoration.” We are making some progress there, but we are not reaching the vast majority of the people we need to reach. There are very few coastal habitat restoration training programs.

Here’s an example. Once a year, I teach a short course on coastal wetland restoration for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. If you are in the permitting branch of the Corps, you have to review permit applications. Some of the participants have 20 years of experience. When I ask them, “What kind of training have you had prior to coming into this classroom about what works and doesn’t work in coastal wetland restoration?” They all say “none.” They are trained in the legalities, which is important, but they have not been trained to determine if the people submitting the applications are professionals or if they are likely to have success. So there is no downside to doing a bad wetland restoration project. Projects rarely get revisited or clearly examined. I’m not talking about being overly punitive, but if a project is incorrectly designed or going in the wrong direction, that needs to be observed and reported, and mid-course corrections need to be made.

In these days of budget cutbacks and the politics that are holding sway around the U.S., there are some who would say, “We’re happy to do the mitigation, but start coming around and bothering us about whether it worked or not and we’re going to push back.”  This happened in North Carolina, and there’s an article about it in the latest issue of the National Wetlands Newsletter. North Carolina realized they weren’t getting the best bang for their buck. So they got a grant, and they did some pretty heavy-duty compliance monitoring and enforcement. All of a sudden, their failure rate started to decline. But the money ran out and the step-up in compliance stopped. They walked away. I suggest that’s because they got push back.

Don’t get me wrong. There are some professionals out there who work really hard and always try to do the right thing. But if a landscaper who mows the lawns in your development says, “Sure, I’ll put those plants in the ground” and there’s no compliance monitoring or enforcement, and someone takes a picture after the plants go in, bingo. You’re home free. You got your permit. Why would anyone want to put up with a gruff, 71-year-old wetland biologist like me who charges relatively high rates to do the right thing?

 

Who do you think has the ability to raise the profile and educational standards of coastal habitat restoration?

I’d say NOAA, as a start, because there are so many government agencies involved in management and permitting, [NOAA’s Office for Coastal Management] has a training center in Charleston, SC. But that’s a good question, and I’m curious to know what others think about that.

 

What is the most positive change you have seen in the field of coastal habitat restoration in the last 40 years?

There is a lot more interest in it, particularly among students. One of my former students is in Brazil right now, and he says he wants to be the “Robin Lewis” of Brazil. Another colleague I trained is living in Indonesia and pursuing his Ph.D., and he wants to be the “Robin Lewis” of Indonesia. There are really good, young professionals coming up, and that gives me hope. They are smarter than I am. The interest is there, and if we can do a better job of reaching out, we can really turn this thing around.

Source: Biohabitats

Leave a Comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

toto slot toto slot kapakbet bobatoto bobatoto https://linkr.bio/macau303 https://linkr.bio/situs123 https://linkr.bio/virus88 https://linkr.bio/dewa303official https://linkr.bio/hobimainofficial https://linkr.bio/1bandarofficial https://linkr.bio/asiabetkingofficial https://linkr.bio/bandartogel303 https://linkr.bio/iasia88 https://linkr.bio/qqpokeronline Situs Toto slot gacor terbaik sulebet kilat128 turbo128 mesin128 Kimtoto RTP Slot Situs Slot scatter hitam https://horspiste-chatel.com/ https://yubira.com/ https://localneighbourhood.org/ slot gacor sakautoto turbo128 turbo128 turbo128 slot marontoto rawit128 rawit128 kapakbet Akun Toto https://ema.co.zw/ asdtoto bandar togel terpercaya https://takeranklating.desa.id/ rajaakurat planet128 planet128 planet128 situs toto slot qris bighoki288 SLOT TOTO 88 toto22 KSR88 Kapakbet slot qris wede388 https://www.kpmunj.org/ link gacor siang ini kilat128 monas128 mesin128 kembang128 kembang128 wede388 SBOBET88 slot gacor Markastoto Markastoto mega118 mega 118 elitjp elit jp toto slot planet128 planet128 info rtp akurat malam hari Wanita Subang Beli mobil dari Nolimit city Rahasia Cuan Aztech Gems Gatot kaca Buat TKW Jadi jutawan Rahasia sukses bermain mahjong wins harapan princess starlight Harapan sweet bonanza taktik gates of olympus xmas dukungan gates olympus rahasia sukses bermain mahjong ways neototo toto togel slot toto dbltoto slot777 ajo89 ajo89 ajo89 jupiter128 orca128 rawit128 ajo89 situs toto toto togel hongtogel istana911 istana911 login Kapakbet ajo89 toto slot toto slot toto slot slot gacor malam ini daftar link mpo daddytoto ajo89 Situs Slot Gacor langit128 marlin128 planet128 Slot gacor Slot online Slot maxwin https://kompasku2025.github.io/beritahariini/kisah-sukses-pemain-mahjong-bantu-ekonomi-kampung.html elitjp elitjp mega118 Cara Mudah Dapat Scatter Hitam di Mahjong Wins 3 Tukang Parkir Ini Berhasil Raup Cuan Besar dari Sweet Bonanza Bocoran RTP Slot Online Hari Ini Biar Makin Gacor Modal Receh Bisa Jadi Sultan, Ini Bukti Nyata dari Pemain Slot Jangan Lengah, Ini Kesalahan yang Sering Bikin Pemain Slot Rungkad toto slot Toto slot Slot gacor hari ini Hindari 5 Kesalahan Ini Agar Tidak Cepat Rungkad Saat Bermain Slot Cerita Tukang Batagor Iseng Iseng Depo Malah Jackpot Besar Pemain Mahjong Wins 3 Ini Beruntung Karena Dapat 4 Scatter Hitam Trik Mahjong Wins 3 Supaya Dapat Scatter Hitam Simak Rahasia Slot Mahjong Agar 4 Scatter Hitam Keluar toto slot SLOT ONLINE 2025 kapakbet Winsortoto Situs Toto situs toto situs slot dana Kapakbet TOKOJUDI TOKOJUDI CASHNET88 toto slot Rasa4d Situs Toto Toto Slot toto 4d Heri Mendadak Sultan Setelah Menang di Mahjong Ways 1 Kisah Darto Yang Menjadi Sultan Berkat Menang 100 Juta Robby Berbagi Cara Menang Jackpot di Slot Pragmatic Mengungkap Kebenaran Anton Yang Membocorkan Pola Gampang Scatter Tukang Buah ini Berhasil Merubah 50 Ribu Menjadi 150 Juta Dalam Semalam Doni Tak Percaya! 10 Ribu Berubah Jadi 300 Juta dalam Semalam Fajar dari Medan Menemukan Pola Spin Gacor Mahjong Ways 2 Terbukti! Inilah Jam Paling Gacor untuk Main Slot, Kata Rahmat Dono Berhasil Raih Maxwin di Mahjong Ways dengan Modal Receh Bagas Menemukan Trik Wild Bounty Showdown dan Menang Besar bosjp https://academy.bunny.ua slot gacor situs toto situs toto kapakbet toto slot hongtogel planet128 planet128 planet128 planet128 planet128 planet128 Stockity: Trading Online Mudah & Terpercaya di Indonesia https://bukoposo.desa.id/poso/ toto togel toto 4d Kisah Asep Jackpot 100 Juta dalam Semalam Tips Ampuh Main Mahjong Ways Biar Auto Maxwin Rahasia Menang Besar yang Wajib Diketahui Pemain Slot Mahjong Ways Lagi Viral Gara-Gara Kemenangan Besar Terbukti! Inilah Jam Paling Gacor untuk Main Slot Hanya dengan 10 Ribu, Pria Ini Menang Besar di Slot Online Dari Tukang Mie Ayam Jadi Sultan, Berkat Sweet Bonanza 1000 Modal 500K Main di Jam Ini? Pemain Wild Bandito Raup Untung Besar! Hoki atau Trik? Seorang Gamer Slot Menang Berkali-kali di Mahjong Ways Panen Cuan, Bocoran Pola Spin Yang Lagi Viral ini Wajib Di Coba bongkar pola spin rahasia koi gate ini alasan scatter hitam populer intip daftar game online gampang maxwin mahjong ways di sini bikin maxwin belasan juta terus maksimalkan roi di mahjong wins 3 begini caranya ngabuburit anti bosan main slot siapa tahu rezeki nomplok raih 100 juta berawal dari lanjutkan game teman saldo dana kaget dari selot mahjong ways simbol baru muncul scatter hitam vs scatter emas strategi jitu analisa pola mantul mahjong ways untuk pemula Jayabola elitjp situs toto Kapakbet suptogel piala dunia 2026 sbobet mobile toto togel situs togel Gate of Olympus 1000 Peluang Hidup Lebih Baik dengan Jackpot Fantastis Jangan Lakukan Ini 5 Hal yang Wajib Dihindari Saat Bermain Slot Online DERETAN GAME YANG WAJIB DI COBA UNTUK NEMENIN SAHUR CUAN 50JT DARI GATOT KACA TUKANG SOL KELILING KINI BUKA USAHA SENDIRI 6 FAKTA DRIVER OJOL JACKPOT 150JT DI PUTARAN SPIN TERAKHIR Rasa4d Situs Slot virus88 mega118 elitjp ilmutoto toto togel Bocoran terbaru ojol tembus ratusan juta Kejutan mix parlay raih 90 juta Main 5 menit dapat jackpot Rahasia master higgs terbongkar hari ini Tips jitu raup 125 juta pecahkan piggy bank situs toto nevada.matahari.com sbobet Keuntungan Setiap Hari Bermain Gates of Olympus di VGOWIN Viral! Buruh Pabrik Sukses dengan Wild Bounty di VGOWIN Hasilkan Jutaan Rupiah dengan Game Starlight Princess di VGOWIN Teknik Terbaru Untuk 4 Sketer Hitam Auto Gacor: Inovasi Digital Paling Viral Petani Jeruk di Sibolangit Tertimpa Ratusan Juta dari Sweet Bonanza diskon.matahari.com totalpetir elitjp yy4d totalwla totalwla https://eabsensi.polbangtan-bogor.ac.id/ toto togel toto slot totalpetir PG Soft: Slot dengan Peluang Menang Besar Sensational Wild Bandito, Slot Seru dengan RTP Tinggi! Cara Bermain dan Menang di Slot Floating Dragon dan Game Slot Terbaik Lainnya Gates of Gatot Kaca: Slot Gacor dengan Maxwin Spektakuler! Bocoran Slot Online Viral 2025: Gacor & Maxwin Lebih Mudah! yygacor totalpetir mega118 elitjp https://pdgisragen.org/ total4d total4d Saldo Dana Kaget mega118 total4d yypaus Slot Gacor Linkin Park: Tiket Gratis 2025 Hanya di industry40 Hari Ini togel slot toto togel situs togel Slot Gacor https://icast.isas.or.id/ Scatter Hitam toto togel SITUS TOTO HONGTOGEL Viral Pemuda Ini Mendapatkan Ratusan Juta Dalam Semalam Viral Pemuda Ini Mendapatkan Ratusan Juta Dalam Semalam Penjual Tahu Bulat Dibanjiri Scatter di HWGSlot Viral HWGBro Sedang Bagi-Bagi Scatter Hitam Mahjong Wins 3 Sedang Panas di HWGSlot yypaus yypaus yy4d slot toto https://lms.unipar.ac.id/ FORMASI4D yy4d slot qris slot thailand Cara Pria Asal Padang Cuan Jutaan dari Starlight Princess dalam Semalam Dengan Modal Receh Fakta Mengejutkan 3 Zodiak Paling Beruntung Main di Gates Of Olympus Cuan Sampai 80 Juta ilmutoto ilmutoto titi4d titi4d titi4d 8kuda4d 8kuda4d 8kuda4d Slot Hoki Toto Slot TOTO ONLINE slot thailand 2025 slot bet receh slot bet 200 situs toto Rahasia Terbaru Pola Mahjong Wins 3: Trik Ampuh yang Bikin Kamu Kaya Mendadak Kisah Sukses Pemuda Asal Tegal Main di Gates Of Olympus Modal 10 Ribu Jadi 10 Juta Dalam Semalam 7 Cara Rahasia Kalahkan Bandar Gates Of Olympus, Nomor 3 Bikin Kaget Pola Jam Gacor Hari Ini Ada Di Mahjong Ways 2 Gampang Jackpot Terbongkar Cara Tips Gampang Turun Scatter Mahjong Ways Tak Terduga Warga Ini Kaget Mendapat Kan Jackpot Maxwin Mahjong Ways Menggila Banyak Warga Meraih Jackpot Pola Baru Bikin Jackpot Bertubi Tubi Bikin Warga Jadi Sultan Mendadak slot deposit pulsa MPO8821 Pemuda Papua Kecanduan Mahjong Wins situs toto slot777 yy4d yy4d totalwla qqslot qqslot qqslot qqslot slot dana panen100 slot bet kecil Kaisar88 https://inspektorat.bappeda.malutprov.go.id/ padi77 sor77 togel777 Trik Rahasia Mahjong Ways 2 yang Jarang Diketahui Sangat Gacor Mahjong Ways 2 Gampang Sekali Maxwin Mahjong Ways 2 Panas Scatter Melimpah & Banyak Menang Mahjong Ways 2 Banjir Jackpot! Buruan Coba Pola Baru Mahjong Ways 2 Banyak yang Sudah Cuan Surabaya Gempar Mahjong Ways 2 Jadi Mesin Jackpot Ini Triknya Medan Geger Sweet Bonanza 1000 Bikin Pemain Auto Sultan Rahasia Jackpot Gate Of Olympus Warga Bandung Buktikan Gacor Mahjong Ways 2 Bawa Hoki Warga Lampung Sukses Menang Besar Sweet Bonanza 1000 Panen Scatter Trik Pemuda Bali Bikin Kaget Warga Lampung Berikan Pola Terbaru Sweet Bonanza Rahasia Pola Budi Di Mahjong Ways Hasilkan Kemenangan 3 Shio Bikin Menang Setiap Hari Di Gate Of Olmpus elitjp Situs Pkv Games Paito Macau Trik dan Tips Mendapat Scatter Hitam Mahjong Ways Jackpot Besar Game Sweet Bonanza Top 10 Game Gacor Pragmatic Fitur Game Slot Sensational Terbaru Sensational Win Lucky Neko Jackpot Tiap Hari! Info Slot Gacor & RTP Live Terupdate 2025 Petir Zeus x1000! Slot Gacor dengan Winrate Tertinggi Viral! Pemuda Jakarta Raih Jackpot Slot Online Ratusan Juta Mahjong Ways Bikin Heboh! Pemain di Kalimantan Raup Cuan Fantastis Trik Zeus x1000 Paling Jitu Mahjong Ways 2 Gacor Jackpot Bertebaran Hari Ini Trik Scatter Mahjong Ways 2 Auto Jackpot Warga Ini Cuan Puluhan Juta Dari Mahjong Ways 2 Mahjong Ways 2 Lagi Panas Siap Siap Cuan Pola Mahjong Ways 2 Ini Bikin Sultan Mendadak Trik Mahjong Ways 2 Yang Jarang Orang Tahu Mahjong Ways 2 Gacor Mega Win Lagi Deras Auto Hoki Mahjong Ways 2 Banjir Scatter Mahjong Ways 2 Lagi Gacor Jangan Sampai Ketinggalan Pola Mahjong Ways 2 Terbukti Cuan Coba Sekarang situs slot stockity slot demo elitjp toto togel hongtogel slot gacor Trik Akurat Menjadi Jutawan Dalam 2 Jam Tanpa RIbet Pola Rtp Tingkat Tinggi Yang Membuat Jackpot Besar Seorang Ex Manager Gempar Jackpot Besar di Jos257 Tanpa Janji Manis Situs Jos257 Mendadak Ramai Peminat Dikarenakan Rtp Live Tinggi Warga Banyumas Menjadi Jutawan Hanya Dengan Modal Kuota Hacker Bongkar Sistem Game PG Soft Jackpot Jadi Super Mudah Didapatkan Kemenangan Mengejutkan Warga Mendadak Kaya Berkat Jackpot Slot Bonanza 1000 Kasus Judi Online Jawa Barat Hebohkan Masyarakat Dengan Kemenangan Fantastis Warga Medan Cuan Besar Bermain Mahjong Ways 2 Dengan Modal Kecil Mendadak Kaya Berkat Gates Of Olympus Warga Manado Raup Uang Cepat Hanya 400 Perak Di Starlight Princess Warga Dapatkan Uang Sampingan Mudah Teknologi Canggih Bikin Akun VIP Lebih Mudah Dengan Win Rate Tinggi Kejutan Besar di Wild Bandito Jakarta Mahjong Ways 2 di DKI Jakarta Sensasi Mahjong Ways 1 di Jakarta Barat Kemenangan di Gates of Olympus Jakarta Selatan Wild Bounty Showdown Menghebohkan Jakarta Timur Fenomena Starlight Princess di Jakarta Utara Sweet Bonanza Viral di Tangerang Kejutan Besar di Gates of Olympus Bekasi Jackpot Luar Biasa di Wild Bandito Depok Mahjong Ways 3 Membawa Kejutan di Jakarta pola gates of olympus pasti menang besar main mahjong ways di bbca4d hidup makin makmur bocoran admin slot olympus bbca4d mudah maxwin main mahjong ways di bbca4d pasti pecah bocoran rahasia jackpot besar di mahjong ways imlek cuan warga palembang di aztec bonanza tips memilih rtp live yang benar kepala desa wonosobo berikan tips di pg soft shio ular beruntung di mahjong ways 2 warga aceh menang 250jt menggunakan rtp live yykoin https://beritacepatnews.github.io/viral/Istri-Bakar-Rumah-Sendiri-Setelah-Suami-Beli-Rumah-dengan-Uang-Hasil-Judi-Online.html https://beritacepatnews.github.io/viral/Polisi-Main-Sirene-Mobil-Patroli-Sambil-Main-Slot.html https://beritacepatnews.github.io/viral/VIRAL!!-Bocah-Tergeletak-Diduga-Dibully-Ternyata.html Trik Mahjong Ways 2 Surabaya Jackpot Gacor Mudah Didapat Sweet Bonanza 1000 Viral Di Medan Pemain Jadi Kaya Gate of Olympus Gacor Hari Ini Warga Bandung Menang Besar Warga Lampung Menang Besar Di Mahjong Ways 2 Tips Terbukti Sweet Bonanza 1000 Pemuda Bali Raih Scatter Dan Jackpot Besar Sweet Bonanza 1000 Buat Warga Papua Kaya Mendadak Pola 3 jejer Koi Gate Auto Jackpot Raih Jackpot Besar Warga Kalimantan Di Mahjong Ways 2 Kisah Warga Bangka Jadi Pengusaha Timah Strategi Warga Sulawesi Selatan Menang Di Gatot Kaca https://pacificejournals.com/ Trik Mahjong Ways 2 Sukses Sweet Bonanza 1000 Jackpot Gates Olympus 1000 Surabaya Lucky Neko Bali Hoki Mahjong Ways 3 Bandung Starlight Princess 1000 Jogja Scatter Sweet Bonanza Medan Gates Gatotkaca Semarang Wild Bounty Showdown Makassar Mahjong Ways Balikpapan Trik Mahjong Ways 2 Indonesia Tips dan Pola Sweet Bonanza Panduan Lengkap Gates Olympus Kisah Jackpot Lucky Neko Bali Strategi Mahjong Ways 3 Terbaru Rahasia Scatter Starlight Princess Game Sweet Bonanza Favorit Indonesia Jackpot Gates of Gatotkaca Wild Showdown Jackpot Besar Trik Mahjong Ways Paling Ampuh KACANGBET bbfs situs toto 20 warga samarinda jadi sultan karna mahjong ways 2 trik terbaru jackpot sweet bonanza 888 warga bali jackpot mahjong ways 2 pria madura kaya dari sweet bonanza rahasia spin gates of olympus cuan tiap hari guetoto Trik Jitu Ala Gen Z Hasilkan 80 Juta 12 Pola Rahasia di Mahjong Ways 3 Scatter Hitam Jadwal RTP dan Game Gacor Siang dan Malam Depo Minimal Jadi WD Maksimal Bukti Nyata Kemenangan Tanpa Batas di Mahjong Ways 1 Trik Anti Boncos di Sweet Bonanza Kang Burhan Bongkar Rahasia Menang 120 Juta di olympus 1000 Bongkar trik Bermain Mahjong Ways 3 Bukti Viral PG Soft Mahjong Wins 3 Cara Main Starlight Princess 1000 Untuk Pemula Tanpa Sadar 4 Kebiasaan Ini Bikin Mudah Menang visa4d Wajib Siap Jadi Sultan! Master Juanda Jun Asal Bangka Belitung Ungkap Rahasia Bermain Mahjong Wins 3 dengan Pola Rahasianya! Keberhasilan Hacker Yang Membocorkan Game PG SOFT Meraup Jutaan Rupiah Warga Mendadak Kaya Di Slot Bonanza 1000 Janji Manis Kepada Masyarakat Jawa Barat Meraih Kemenangan Fantastis Warga Medan Menang Modal Minim Di Mahjong Ways 2 Mendadak Kaya Bermain Game Gates of Olympus Warga Manado Profit Sampingan Modal Hp Dan Modal Receh Hanya Dengan Cara Spin Khasus Teknologi Baru Akun VIP Dengan Win Rate Tinggi, Begini Caranya! Pemuda Pelajar Mendapat Pola RTP Dengan Prediksi Akurat Dalam Permainan Terjadi Kebocoran Data Game Online Gampang Jackpot Oleh Warga Aceh Pemudah Mendapatkan Uang Kaget Miliaran Rupiah Bermain Game bbfs https://lppm.unipar.ac.id/ Trik Mahjong Ways 2 Palembang Jackpot Besar Rahasia Mahjong Ways 2 Lampung Scatter Terus Viral Sweet Bonanza 1000 Jackpot Papua Scatter Hitam Mahjong Wins 3 Bandung Gates of Olympus 1000 Surabaya Rahasia Menang Sweet Bonanza 1000 Favorit Madura Mahjong Ways 3 Jogja Strategi Pemain Lucky Neko Bali Keuntungan Luar Biasa Starlight Princess 1000 Pola Sukses Manado Gates of Olympus 1000 Balikpapan Hadiah Besar Rahasia Warga Madura Jackpot Besar Di Swet Bonanza 1000 Game Sugar Rush Memberikan Hasil Memuaskan Di Daerah Boyolali 6 Shio Buat Kamu Hoki Beruntun Di Mahjong Wins 3 Teknologi Canggih Warga Pekanbaru Jackpot Di Gates of Olympus 1000 Keajaiban Anak Kuliah Binus Berikan Trik Jackpot Methode Baru Dari AI Untuk Akun Pro Gates of Gatot Kaca 1000 Cerdas Warga Bali Bet 2000 Menang Besar Di Aztec Gems Pemudah Kuliah Bandung Menang Di Mahjong Wins 3 Fakta 5 Pekerjaan Yang Hoki Dalam Permainan Mahjong Wins 2 kunci Utama Trik Sukses Warga Manado Dalam Permainan Starlight Princess 1000 situs toto Heboh Trik Mahjong Ways 2 Membawa Jackpot Besar Rahasia Sukses Di Palembang Dapat Scatter Mahjong Ways 2 Warga Lampung Buktikan Jackpot Di Mahjong Ways 2 Warga Papua Menaklukkan Sweet Bonanza Raih Kemenangan Fanstatis Mahjong Ways 2 Berikan Warga Palembang Inspirasi https://bpombatam.com/ slot situs toto yygacor indo2play jambi69 Jastipbet Rasa4d https://www.agence-fleurie.com/ YYKoin https://jurnal.fkip-uwgm.ac.id/ slot slot slot slot thailand rawit128 slot online slot online Rasa4d slot88 Lumi777 https://ftik-iainpalopo.ac.id/ cemilanbet slot situs toto kaisarsloto situs toto Slot Slot Situs Slot Online Terpercaya orca128 slot pulsa slot deposit pulsa tanpa potongan slot gacor Lumi777 https://jurnal.unipar.ac.id/ monas128 https://journal.perkivi.or.id/ awan128 jangkar128 cahaya128 cahaya128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 orca128 turbo128 jangkar128 jangkar128 monas128 planet128 planet128 slot thailand slot slot thailand sesetoto planet128 planet128 Topwin138 https://nammakpsc.com/wp-content/plugins/pkv-games/ Situs Toto kembang128 kembang128 kembang128 cahaya128 cahaya128 cahaya128 cahaya128 mesin128 mesin128 cahaya128 mesin128 museumbola monas128 monas128 slot gacor Situs Toto Toto Togel situs toto cahaya128 cahaya128 mesin128 mesin128 Rawit128 Rawit128 turbo128 situs toto amavi5d slot thailand Scatter Hitam orca128 Situs Toto Toto Togel situs toto situs toto planet128 turbo128 turbo128 turbo128 rawit128 orca128 orca128 situs toto situs toto situs toto situs toto situs toto sulebet slot 2024 planet128 raja787 cahaya128 cahaya128 rawit128 rawit128 planet128 planet128 planet128 planet128 bighoki88 planet128 cahaya128 cahaya128 cahaya128 slot bet 200 slot gacor planet128 slot thailand Lumi777 planet128 planet128 cahaya128 cahaya128 situs toto dbltoto slot planet128 rawit128

slot gacor

orca128 orca128 orca128 rawit128 planet128 cahaya128 mesin128 login togel gelora4d mewah77 cahaya128 kembang128 mesin128 mesin128 orca128 bom89 planet128 planet128 SLOT PRAGMATIC https://www.miep.edu.ru/ rawit128 rawit128 planet128 planet128 planet128 kembang128 kembang128 cahaya128 slot dana slot dana guetoto planet128 cahaya128 cahaya128 cahaya128 cahaya128 planet128 planet128 planet128 planet128 DEPOSIT PULSA TANPA POTONGAN SLOT PULSA SLOT GACOR planet128 scatter hitam mahjong ways raja787 https://pafipemdajakarta.org/ planet128 planet128 slot gacor slot gacor scatter hitam https://www.wbac.com/ rawit128 rawit128 kemonbet https://pafidesabumiwaras.org Slot Online rp8888 https://pafipemkotlampung.org/ https://pafikabjakartaselatan.org/ https://pafipemdajakartaselatan.org/ slot mahjong
pria indonesia ini menjadi duta mahjong ways teknologi elon musk terbaru memberikan kemudahan untuk jaackpot di slot mahjong teknik rahasia memunculkan connect scatter hitam di slot mahjong wins pragmatic rahasia maxwin menggunakan iphone 16 terbaru dari apple airpods pro 3 mengeluarkan fitur baru untuk mendengar suara jackpot di mahjong lebih jernih hp samsung a5 memberikan fitur terbaru untuk memudahkan maxwin di slot zeus indonesia di nobatkan sebagai tempat jackpot nya para penikmat slot mahjong terbanyak tutorial cara mudah jackpot menggunakan apple vision pro terbaru pola kehidupan sehat dengan memainkan slot mahjong scatter hitam di pragmatic yang baru rilis alvarez berhasil membawa piala kemenangan atas jackpot nya di slot mahjong
jangkar128 https://www.kp.ac.rw/ slot gacor planet128 https://mesajil.com/ rp8888 rawit128 rawit128 planet128 planet128 rawit128 Barbershop terbaik di poipet https://www.safersurfing.org/ rawit128 rawit128 kelas99 Salon terbaik di poipet Barbershop terbaik di kamboja Salon kecantikan di poipet Salon di poipet planet128 raja787 dewa787 138resmi 138 resmi rawit128 https://californiapopulation.org/ situs togel rawit128 rawit128 planet128 slot gacor https://satpolppdamkar.bonebolangokab.go.id rawit128 https://www2.kuet.ac.bd/EEEday2023/wp-content/scatter-hitam/ Rp8888 Login Cheat Scatter Hitam Scatter Hitam planet128 https://pafibangkatimur.org/ planet128 planet128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 https://gurudaringmilenial.id/ gurudaringmilenial.id dewa787 slot slot gacor toto slot slot gacor hari ini https://pafibogorsel.org/ planet128 planet128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 slot dana scatter hitam slot dana planet128 planet128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 https://www.souvenirnapoleonien.org/ planet128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 https://www.bloempot.fr/ 138resmi 138 resmi https://raja787.store/ orca128 orca128 orca128 orca128 planet128 planet128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 orca128 orca128 kembang128 kembang128 kilat128 kilat128 orca128 orca128 orca128 128 slot thailand orca128 kemonbet https://tpid.tabalongkab.go.id/ kacangbet sulebet Ladangtoto bestoto88 indoslot https://104.131.88.47/ https://134.209.222.92/ orca128 qwe138 qwe 138 qwe138 daftar qwe138 login qwe138 slot qwe138 wap qwe138 app qwe138 amp qwe138 rtp slot dana 10 rb situs gacor togel online terpercaya bola online terbaik Slot gacor hari ini Slot online gampang menang Togel online gampang menang Slot dana gacor pragmatic play rawit128 rawit128 login raja787 guetoto https://events.preprod.afcen.com/public/img/ angkot88 http://103.79.90.180/assets/spulsaz/ slot online agen togel laetoto guetoto https://www.hondacokroaminoto.co.id/guetoto/ https://wis77hoki.com/ https://medlinkus.com/ https://griefresourcescatalog.com/ https://environmentvoters.org/ https://victorychristiancenterofhollywood.org/ rawit128 rawit128 planet128 planet128 planet128 cahaya128 cahaya128 cahaya128 orca128 orca128 jambislot https://dedy.man1jember.sch.id/file/Sulebet/ slot gacor slot online https://pafikupangbarat.org https://pafikupangtimur.org https://pafipemdakupang.org https://pafidesahansisi.org https://pafidesahuilelot.org https://pafidesaletbaun.org https://pafidesaotan.org https://pafidesauiasa.org https://pafidesauitao.org guetoto
pink4d
bosjp https://indofresh.co.id/ https://139.59.245.96/ planet128 planet128 login https://rsudwzjohanes.nttprov.go.id/web/wp-includes/prov/ slot88 monas128 jupiter128 bosjp https://www.isiborosecure.com/ https://blacklivesmatter5280.com/ https://myfreshperspective.com jupiter128 monas128 monas128 dewahoki303 jupiter128 jupiter 128 jkt88 slot88 slot88 resmi rawit128 rawit128 login rawit128 rawit128 login https://siarsip.ypmkembang.sch.id/assets/img/icons/ planet128 planet128 raja787 slot deposit pulsa slot deposit pulsa tanpa potongan situs slot online slot gampang menang link slot gacor slot daftar online link slot deposit pulsa planet128 planet128 planet128 kilat128 https://128.199.70.188/ https://consultingmag-digital.com/ sulebet rawit128 rawit128 orca128 orca128 turbo128 turbo128 jangkar128 jangkar128 Slot777 agrencogroup.com orca128 rawit128 guetoto guetoto raja787 raja787 https://167.172.74.170/ https://104.236.1.247/ https://138.197.92.5/ https://138.197.24.207/ https://peboking.com/ rawit128 slot gacor resmi https://167.172.74.170/ https://67.207.80.30/ https://tolkienguild.org/ https://103.245.38.155/ https://103.16.117.200/ https://103.245.39.105/ https://www.kbrtec.com.br/public/vendor/ turbo128 lion4dbet lion4dbet login lion4dbet daftar link alternatif lion4dbet lion4dbet prediksi https://muzita.com/ http://103.27.206.15/ http://103.245.39.125/ http://103.245.39.116/ http://103.245.39.87/ http://103.245.39.90/ jangkar128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 http://103.160.63.231/ https://103.149.177.72/ rawit128 planet128 slot online slot gacor thailand rawit128 planet128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 rawit128 slot gacor slot gacor hari ini rawit128 turbo128 Slot Gacor situs slot Wis77 Wis77 Agen Slot Qris Tko77 Tko77 Slot Gacor Online Wis77 Vip arthatoto slot qris live casino online togel online lion4dbet lion4dbet login lion4dbet daftar link alternatif lion4dbet lion4dbet prediksi https://128.199.148.93 https://174.138.22.218 https://103.160.63.131 https://103.178.153.194 https://103.178.153.195 situs slot planet128 kilat128 kembang128 slotasiabet rawit128 masalili.id rawit128 slot gacor resmi slot gacor resmi rawit128 rawit128 situs toto toto 5d https://pkm-talangbabungo.solokkab.go.id/template/thai/ https://pkm-talangbabungo.solokkab.go.id/template/gacor/ https://pkm-muarapanas.solokkab.go.id/sgacor/ https://pkm-muarapanas.solokkab.go.id/asset/naganakal/ slot gacor slot mahjong Gue Toto raja787 kacangbet kacangbet login raja787 raja787 mega888 slot gacor https://tolkienguild.org/ planet128 pola slot gacor bro Pola Slot gacor slot gacor slot terbaik agen slot gacor slot toto casino online platinum789 warga789 asdtoto slot thailand kembang128 turbo128 totoslot situs slot toto slot slot depo qris turbo128 turbo128 planet128 turbo128 Planet128 Rawit128 Turbo128
Scroll to Top